Prosody

     The subject of prosody intersects with many different fields of study. Prosody is the linguistic study and application of the effects of intonation, pitch, volume and rhythm in the process of speech and interpersonal interactions. These are classified as elements that serve to modify conversations and provide emphasis, emotional input and responsorial cues in the give and take of communication. They are aspects of language that refine and eliminate obfuscation of oral content by introducing the effects of human speech and interpretation of material as well as the use of oratory skills in delivery of thought to the listener. Prosody serves as an integral element in both psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic studies as cognitive aspects of language acquisition and the physiological basis of the production of language are examined. Prosody is also emphasized in the study of versification in poetry and music. The oratory skills used in the public delivery of poetry and lyrics can also provide insight into speech production in the teaching of English as a second language classroom to increase understanding for the student of a foreign language. How can the study of the elements of prosody serve to further the teaching of English? Can the study of prosody be utilized in other fields of study such as speech therapy? This paper seeks to provide a survey of the use of prosody in various areas of study and how the research can provide insight to the uses of prosody in the fields of linguistics and the teaching of English as a second language.

Discussion

     What is prosody and why is it an important part of linguistic study? Why is the study of prosody necessary for the teaching of English as a second language? Prosody refers to attributes of an utterance as well as the emotional state of a speaker and its representation in dialogue or physical gestural components that are relative to the content of speech being produced. The elements of prosody can be distinguished as acoustical attributes or auditory attributes according to Hirst and Di Cristo in their work Intonation Systems (1998). The acoustical elements can be scientifically measured by studying the soundwave frequency, the decibel level of the soundwave as well as its duration. The auditory focal points include timbre and loudness of the utterances as well as the pitch and duration of enunciation of the phonological elements of speech (Hirst, DeChristo).
     Prosody serves to guide conversational structure and offers cues as to inclusion or exclusion in a conversation, turn taking as well as introduction of new material into the discourse according to David Brazil in his discussion of discourse and intonation (Brazil, Coulthard, Johns).
     Other factors to consider in the study of prosody are the presence of allophones. Allophones are the collections of sounds that are possible for each phoneme and incorporate the availability of spoken sounds due to both syntax and the influence of the international character and the incomplete knowledge of students of the English language. Many of these variations in pronunciation are subconscious while others are the product of inexperience or even guessing by the student of the L2 language as he imitates native speakers of the language. The phonology inherent in ones L1 language can influence the pronunciation of the L2 language as the speaker draws upon his L1 experiences and searches for possibilities to choose from in the patterns of speech in common use in the L1 language. “The choice of one allophone rather than another may depend on such factors as communicative situation, language variety, and social class (Skanders, Burleigh).
     These factors serve to influence the speaker and may produce a “foreign” accent which can stigmatize the speaker and lead to prejudice and discrimination. This effect underscores the need to stress proper pronunciation in an English as a Second Language curriculum and the need to focus more attention to the use of prosody in the production of the spoken word as well as body language in speech which some consider to be additional elements of prosody. Included in this grouping are hand gestures used during speech, bodily stance, facial expressions, eye contact, distance between speaker and listener to name a few. Contrast body language with mannerisms which are distracting to the listener and may indicate disfluency and hesitation in speech due to cognitive load and its effect on the speaker. Mannerisms may include self-touching, scratching, pacing, swaying and finger tapping among others (Tanveer, Hoque).
     Prosodic features such as pitch, intonation and spacing of words are important attributes of caretakers of young children and help them to learn to interact. 
“Motherese” describes the type of speech patterns used as one interacts with infants and toddlers. There is documentation of wide spread occurrence of this phenomenon that is cross cultural. Several features of motherese are important structures that an infant becomes aware of and is sensitive to. Changes in pitch and intonation as well as pausal placement in syntax can contrast similar syllabic phonemes and help the infant to distinguish the sounds as well as assimilate more input because of the shorter clausal usage (Grieser, Kuhl).
    This line of thought lends support to Noam Chomsky’s theory of the language acquisition device which ascribes to children an innate, genetically enabled ability to acquire language at an early age. This viewpoint is specific to the nativist theory that “asserts that humans are born with the instinct or ‘innate facility’ for acquiring language” (Van Patten, Benati). Empiricism, on the other hand defines development as occurring through experiences and learning. The dichotomy of “nature versus nurture” continues to divide modern psychological theorists.
     Alternately, if one views the effect of brain injury and the effects of alcoholism on the brain and its capacity for prosodic abilities even more evidence lends support to Chomsky’s theory in part. Consider motor aprosodia and expressive aprosodia which are relatively recent diagnoses of brain dysfunctions. Motor aprosodia is a physical condition that affects one’s ability to express affective aspects of prosody in conversational discourse. Vocal inflection, volume and pitch changes are suppressed by physiological damage to the brain or a failure in brain development (Ross, Monnot). “Producing these nonverbal elements requires intact motor areas of the face, mouth, tongue and throat. This area is associated with Brodmann areas 44 and 45 (Broca’s area) of the left frontal lobe. Damage to areas 44/45 produces motor aprosodia, with the nonverbal elements of speech being disturbed (facial expression, tone, rhythm of voice” (Miller, Collins, Kent). 
      Expressive aprosodia is a more social-cognitive condition rather than a psychomotor condition. The individual cannot produce respective cues that reflect a certain emotional expression. Both motor aprosodia and expressive aprosodia are organic in origin. (Williamson, Shenal, Demaree).  
     Alcoholism can create dysfunctions in prosodic expression, interpretation and processing of social cues in discourse as well. “An inability to process or exhibit emotions in a proper manner has been shown to exist in alcoholics and those who were exposed to alcohol while fetuses” (Monnot, Nixon, Lovallo, Ross). These prenatal obstructions to the proper development of the fetus are irreversible and may include physical deformities as well as social and psychological impairments and learning disabilities. The structure and activity of the brain in children with fetal alcohol syndrome has been observed through the use of electro encephalograms, MRI’s and other brain imaging software. The specific areas of the brain that are active in prosody, speech and communication activities have been identified. In addition to the previously mentioned conditions, multiple sclerosis has a debilitating effect on prosodic perception to a certain degree. The progression of the disease affects individuals differently in varying ways, however. 
     Nativist theories such as Noam Chomsky state that the human capacity for universal grammar is related to the presence of modules of neurons and substrates in the brain that assist the child during normal development to attain speech and language functions. The innate learning theory contrasts with a more empirical, Skinnerian view that language is acquired through imitation, reinforcement and shaping and modeling behavior that is engendered by the caregiver of the child (Chomsky). 
     Critics of nativist theory claim that it is unverifiable through trial and error and experimentation in the laboratory. Embracing a more empiricist approach, Kymissis and Poulson state that, “To the extent that we can experimentally analyze successively larger proportions of children's utterances within an operant-learning paradigm, it becomes less pressing to worry about non-learning language acquisition paradigms that in principle render their subject matter unavailable for experimentation” (Kymissis, Poulton).
     Prosody is also a fundamental aspect of reading and interpretation. “Prosody, the defining feature of expressive reading, comprises all of the variables of timing, phrasing, emphasis, and intonation that speakers use to help convey aspects of meaning and to make their speech lively. One of the challenges of oral reading is adding back the prosodic cues that are largely absent from written language” (DeLey). In this respect, two of the key elements of second language acquisition, reading and speaking utilize prosodic elements such as syllabic accent, rhythm and meter of the spoken expression as the written word is interpreted orally. 
     Even more rarified is the concept of prosody as it is applied to poetry and prose. “The poet organizes structures of sound and rhythm into rhyme, stanzaic form, and, most importantly, metre. Indeed, the largest part of prosodical study is concerned with the varieties of metre, the nature and function of rhyme, and the ways in which lines of verse fall into regular patterns or stanzas” (Gross). 
   The formal practice of prosodic formulation has fallen by the wayside in modern literature although there are poets and writers who still resort to this literary tradition and equally important, how is one to interpret past literary works without a firm grasp of prosodic features?  Gross continues by stating that dramatic verse makes greater use of prosodic elements as the literary form seeks an emotional response from the audience.  Cheree Charmello states that “Imagery is the most easily recognizable literary device. Imagery is not limited to words that help to create an image, but also encompasses all of our senses, including sound. These images are created through unique word choice and are often embedded within other devices. Devices that help to create an image in the readers mind also help to create meaning. This includes the sounds that are created by the words and structure of a poem” (Charmello). 

Conclusion

     We can surmise that the various elements of prosody can be utilized in the classroom to engage the students and provide context, nonverbal cues, emotional intent of the speaker, emphasis of criteria in speech as well as elicitation of direction and inclusion of participants in conversational discourse. Exercises in pronunciation should be stressed and, included as well, should be discussion of other prosodic characteristics of spoken English that assist in proper interpretation of input. We have seen from its use in prose and poetry that discourse is enriched by the influence of prosody and its absence can cause misinterpretation of speech, suspicion, paranoia and aggression when the intent of the speaker is hampered by poor prosodic input or a lack of ability by the listener to interpret material effectively either through disability or inexperience. A redress and therapeutic examination of prosodic skills may serve to assist those who have experienced brain damage or who suffer from birth defects. 

Works Cited 

Brazil, David., Coulthard, Malcolm., Johns, Catherine. Discourse, Intonation and Language Teaching. Longman. 1980.

Charmello, Cheree. “The Sound Within: An Exploration of Prosodic Elements in Poetry”. Yale National Initiative, Yale University. 2018.

Chomsky, Noam. "A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior". Language. 1959. 
pp. 26–58.

De Ley, Logan. “Why Prosody Matters: The Importance of Reading Aloud with Expression”. Scientific Learning. June 13, 2017. 
www.scilearn.com/why-prosody-matters-importance-reading-aloud-expression/ 

Grieser, D., Kuhl, P. “Maternal Speech to Infants in a Tonal Language: Support for Universal Prosodic Features in Motherese”. Developmental Psychology. January 1988. pp. 14-20.

Gross, Harvey S. “Prosody: Literature”. Brittanica.
www.britannica.com/art/prosody  accessed May 02, 2018.

Hirst, D., DiCristo, A. Intonation Systems. Cambridge Press.1998. p. 6.

Kymissis, E., Poulson, C. “The History of Imitation in Learning Theory: The Language Acquisition Process”. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 1990. 54. p.156.

Miller, Lisa A., Collins, Robert L., Kent, Thomas A. "Language and the Modulation of Impulsive Aggression". The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2008. 20 (3). pp. 261–73.

Monnot, M., Nixon, S., Lovallo W., Ross, E. “Altered Emotional Perception in Alcoholics: Deficits in Affective Prosody Comprehension”. Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research. 2001. pp. 362-369.

Ross, E., Monnot, M. “Neurology of Affective Prosody and its Functional Anatomic Organization in Right Hemisphere”. Brain and Language. January 2008. pp. 51-74.

Skandera, Paul., Burleigh, Peter. A Manual of English Phonetics and Phonology, Gunter Narr Verlag 2005. p. 45. 

Tanveer, M., Zhao, R., Hoque M. “Automatic Identification of Non-Meaningful Body Movements and What It Reveals About Humans”. arXive. University of Rochester. New York 2017. p. 1. 

Van Patten, Bill., Benati, Allesandro. Key Terms in Second Language Acquisition. Continuum Publishing 2010. p. 101.

 Williamson, J., Harrison, D., Shenal, B., Rhodes, R., Demaree, H. “Quantitative EEG Diagnostic Confirmation of Expressive Aprosodia”. Applied Neuropsychology. October 2003. pp. 176-181. 

    

Traditional Uses of the Juniper Tree

     I delve into the culinary uses of the juniper berry, the female seed of the juniper tree. This spice is used to flavor game and fish and the berry can be utilized dried or fresh. The dried berry can be ground and used in a manner similar to pepper whereas the fresh berries are crushed. The flavor varies from pine flavor to a flavor reminiscent of gin which the berry is used to flavor.  Many Scandinavian recipes take advantage of the abundance and freshness of this gift of nature. The blog at Brit + Co has gathered several exciting offerings that look too good to pass up and all use the juniper berry as one of several ingredients. There is an intriguing recipe for juniper and smoke marshmallows with marvelous photography of the process of making homemade marshmallows.  A description of hazelnut and sweet potato pancakes with warm juniper syrup is featured from the Blue Ridge Mountains in Appalachia.
     In traditional Navajo and other native cultures including the descendants of the Aztec in Mexico, the natives burn the juniper and mix the ashes with hot water and subsequently strain the solution after soaking for several minutes. The resultant ash mixture is then added to cornmeal to produce a tamal, a corn dough. This process is referred to as “nixtamalization”. Greater vitamin and mineral content is acquired as the ash mixture has an alkaline ph and releases more of the nutrients into the diet that would be severely deficient without this process to treat the corn, the main staple of the diets for native Americans for centuries. “No matter what their source for ash, all the native American cultures have essentially the same process for preparing corn into dough. Ash is stirred into hot water, then the mixture is strained. Alkali cooking frees otherwise unavailable nutrients, which are not absent in corn but locked in. These are the benefits:
• deeper flavor
• it takes the hull off the corn
• softens the corn kernels, more easily ground
• nutritional value increased
• allows dough formation
• enhances the quality of corn protein: it alters the protein content to make it a more complete protein
• it makes the niacin in corn more absorbable in the human body
• enriches the corn with needed minerals: increases, calcium, zinc, iron and magnesium content
• it significantly reduces molds that commonly infect corn” (Bit’éézh).
     I brew some herbal tea with the crushed juniper berries and add sage and catnip from my garden. The aroma is delicate and most definitely herbal. I add lemon and honey and sip the luxurious liquid, the fruit of my labor. The use of the juniper berry in the Navajo culture is as a detoxifying agent. This claim has been substantiated by modern research into the physiological effects of the berry which is actually a female seed cone that the juniper tree produces. “Juniper is used for digestion problems including upset stomach, intestinal gas, heartburn, bloating, and loss of appetite, as well as gastrointestinal (GI) infections and intestinal worms. It is also used for urinary tract infections (UTIs) and kidney and bladder stones. Other uses include treating snakebite, diabetes and cancer” (Editors WebMd). This summation of traditional uses of the juniper berry and essential oil is not comprehensive nor backed by extensive medical research. Warnings are also addressed to the potential user of the essential oil of juniper to not confuse it with “cade oil” which is a distilled product of the wood itself. The authors at Web MD also caution, “Juniper might decrease blood sugar. Diabetes medications are also used to lower blood sugar. Taking juniper along with diabetes medications might cause your blood sugar to go too low” (Editors WebMd).
     Juniper has many utilitarian uses. Lashings and cordage can be created from the roots and inner bark of the juniper. Students in a field biology project at Brandeis University report that, “Lashing is needed for almost every type of equipment from tents, to backpacks, to beds, to snowshoes. If man-made cord is not available, cordage can easily be produced from plant fibers or tree bark. Cordage is made from two or more plant fibers twisted together” (Hahn). More detailed instructions for the use of juniper and other trees to create cordage are available at
Lashings and Cordage.
     Juniper berries and foliage may be used as fodder however wild animals will only resort to
this source when nothing else is available. The juniper shrub and tree are found in all fifty states in the US and their use as rangeland forage during the autumn and winter months hold promise. Typical grasses used as range fodder are more palatable to the animals. As the season progresses, the grasses lose their nutritive value and the animals may seek an alternate source for survival into the winter months when ground forage may be buried in snow (Launchbaugh et al). Researchers at Texas A&M University observe that,
“Unfortunately, there is a sturdy fence between the critter and juniper forage.
            The fence is the essential oils that juniper produces. Understanding how
livestock detoxify these compounds and how the compounds affect juniper palatability
will lead to management practices that will help the herbivore get over this    allelochemical fence. These management practices are likely to include: selecting the proper breed or species of livestock, breeding animals with desired diet habits, giving them the proper early life experiences, and offering nutritional or pharmaceutical products to reduce the toxicity of the essential oils” (Launchbaugh et al).
            I pull into the Tusayan Ranger district field office parking lot in the late afternoon. The sunlight is turning a lazy copper color typical of the dust filtered summer air in this part of the Arizona rangeland. My old friend, Joel is on duty today at the field office. Joel used to work with me in the busy dining room we both manned, the Bright Angel Lodge, right on the edge of the Grand Canyon. Joel hails from New Orleans and occasionally slips into a soft drawl. He is very urbane and has a degree in English and has helped me numerous times assessing and critiquing my own English class assignments. Joel volunteered with the Forest Service and eventually worked himself into a full-time paid employment position as a Ranger here in Tusayan. He is the interpretive Ranger for the Kaibab National Forest office. Joel recently got married, and I offer to buy the newlyweds dinner in the steakhouse where I am employed but Joel modestly demurs. I congratulate him and reiterate that I would never allow myself to be roped into a permanent relationship like that. I want him to know his matchmaking efforts are not appreciated. “The thought of it makes me shiver. I am too used to living alone and tell the would-be matchmaker that I am happy that way and would feel smothered in a complex emotional entanglement.” I tell myself and anyone else interested in my opinion on the subject.  Enough of the pleasantries.
     Joel asks about my previous assignment, “How did your observation turn out comparing and contrasting the two juniper specimens?” I had been photographing native species and a juniper specimen in the vicinity of the newly opened Canyon Uranium Mine just six miles south of Tusayan. I reply, “Everything is fine, I got a good grade on the observation report but the professor wants me to limit myself to the original specimen.” Joel is relieved to hear this bit of news. I had related to him my confusion at receiving conflicting reports as to the progress of the uranium mine. The official Kaibab Forest online USDA sponsored website states that no uranium ore has ever been removed from the mine as of the present. Several of the locals had reported the extraction route for the transporting of the uranium ore to be on the road where my original specimen of juniper is located. Joel continues, “The subject of the mine is a sensitive issue with the government and the public.” “Yes, I know.” I reply. “I attended a meeting at Sinagua High School in Flagstaff sponsored by the Arizona Department of Water Quality when they sought public input regarding the permitting of the mine operation.” I continue, “The oversight of the mining operation is to include radiation detectors along the removal route. The route is south on AZ SR 64 to I40 in Williams, AZ. From there, the route continues east on I40 through Flagstaff to SR 89 north to Page, Arizona.” The sensitive issues embody international trade, (the mine is owned and operated by a Canadian company), native American politics, (the natives complain about the pollution from the uranium mines abruptly shutting down in the 1970s when the price of uranium dropped—the mine sites were not cleaned up), water quality of the local aquifer that serves the Hualapai Reservation and the towns of Tusayan, Williams, the Grand Canyon Village and parts of Flagstaff, Ash Fork, and Prescott. Also, the federal government put a moratorium on uranium extraction around the Grand Canyon National Park which formerly hosted the Orphan Uranium Mine directly on the edge of the Grand Canyon South Rim.
     Today, I want to harvest juniper wood for my woodstove. I pluck down the twenty dollars for the wood gathering permit and Joel gives me a sheaf of papers that allow me to gather wood from anywhere in the Kaibab Forest. The free permit is limited to certain areas and are usually picked clean of the dead and down wood quickly. The paid permit grants freedom to gather wood anywhere in the forest as long as the permittee does not harvest live trees. Chainsaws with spark arresters are allowed but the deadwood stumps must be no taller than a couple of inches above the surface level of the surrounding soil.
     I bid Joel good day, thank him for the permit and head out with my old pickup truck in search of the aromatic juniper that will make the winter nights on the windy open range more tolerable. I normally choose a mixture of aspen, pine, and the highly prized juniper. I have several cords of the pine and am in search of juniper logs and branches today. I must choose carefully. There are numerous dead junipers but not all can be used as firewood. The resin that burns and provides the heat must still be present in the wood to a certain extent. Otherwise, the effort is in vain as the wood is loaded, transported, processed with the chainsaw and maul and prepped for burning. Nothing is as disheartening as going through all that effort and not being rewarded with heat from the fire that is built. A German legend is that a vampire is present when this happens, a burning fire that does not emit heat! I asked a German émigré friend about this belief and she just stared at me. I hope I did not insult her as she was the widow of a US Army officer and was dependent on her benefits as a survivor of a soldier. Unfortunately, our relationship was put on the back burner as she travelled back and forth to Bremerhaven to care for her mother who was ill.
     I continue to carefully look for juniper that has a minimum of the shaggy bark on the exterior. When sawing the wood, the bark creates a lot of dust that mixes with the cutting oil on the chainsaw and creates a mess that clogs the machine everywhere. I look for the fresher wood that still has the resin in it. I am willing to let it season a year in my yard after processing. I try to remove as much of the shaggy bark as I can and collect that as well. The bark is ready made tinder for starting a fire.
     The snow is lightly falling outside, I have a small juniper and aspen woodfire started in my fireplace. I close the glass doors that permit me to enjoy the visual aspect of the fire. I have prepared my juniper tea and am enjoying homemade corn tortillas that are freshly made with traditional native masa mix that incorporates the juniper ash water into the dough. The filling for my tortillas is a delicious salsa verde with pureed tomatillos, garlic, onion, green Anaheim peppers and some crushed juniper berries. I thank my maker for such a fine repast and the enjoyment of the cozy fire supplied by the providence of the juniper and aspen logs. My two cats gather round to enjoy the fire as well. They are curious as to what I am eating so I share a few morsels with them. They purr loudly and I call them, “Here Buddy, here CiCi! They like to nuzzle my ears when I am in my recliner and I love listening to their relaxing purrs this way! Who could ask for anything more? I am grateful for such experiences as these that help me to feel a part of the local culture where I am here in Arizona. The juniper is an integral part of the Navajo culture and the tamale-masa mix is used extensively in Hispanic cooking here in the southwest. Living close to the land in this way I feel is much healthier than dependency on store bought items that cost for transportation to market, transportation that adds to the carbon footprint of modern society.
   

Works Cited

Bit’éézh, Gad. “Juniper Ash”. Navajo Recipes. Date unknown.Web.
     https://navajorecipes.com/corn/juniper-ash/ Accessed 21 June 2019.

Editors USDA, “Classification for Kingdom Plants Down to Genus Junip.” Plants Database.
     https://plants.usda.gov/java/ClassificationServlet?source=display&classid=JUNIP
     Accessed 19 June 2019.

Editors. “Vitamins and Supplements: Juniper”. Web MD. 2005-2019.
     https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-724/juniper Accessed 21 June 2019.

Hahn, Micah. “Lashing and Cordage”. Practical Plants of New England. Brandeis Univ. 2004.
     Web. http://www.bio.brandeis.edu/fieldbio/Survival/Pages/home.html Accessed 19 June 2019

Huddleston, Justina.”16 Recipes that Make the Most out of Junipers”. Brit + Co. 17 Feb. 20.
     https://www.brit.co/juniper-berries-recipes/ Accessed 20 June 2019.

Launchbaugh, Karen. Taylor, Charles. Straka, Erika. Pritz, Robert. “Juniper as Forage: An Unlikely Candidate”. Texas Natural Resources Server. Texas A&M Univ., College Station, TX. Date unknown. Web
      https://texnat.tamu.edu/library/symposia/juniper-ecology-and-management/juniper-as-forage-an-unlikely-candidate/ Accessed 20 June 2019.

At Long Last Rain

Burnished, parched Earth, shades of orange and brown
Eschewed her gossamer dress, veiled green gown
Denuded, She waits for rain.

Animals are dying, loss of fodder
Thirsty herds gather at tanks for water
Patiently, they wait for rain.

The garden wilts, though I water often
Wings of creatures in bright sunshine glisten
The pollinators need rain.

The flowers lack sweet nectar, drones have none
The dismayed swarm, stricken, may soon be gone,
Hive and honeycomb dried out.

Flying insects seek water to survive,
The sweat I bring aids their little lives,
Testing tolerance, no doubt.

Humidity lacking, nostrils stinging,
My tongue swells, nose bleeds from dust invading
I wait for rain, this death bout?

Wreaking havoc, dust devils summoning.
Saints preserve us from gritty storm’s fouling
Send gentle rain, we despair!

Hasten the moisture, wet timber and grass.
Assure us the fire from heaven does pass.
Restore the landscape so fair.

Scourged by water’s lack, all of Earth is bent.
Subdued by chastening so duly sent
Please refresh by waters flow.

We dance and sing, we bow in gratitude.
Hope for a future of life now renewed.
Grace abounds with seed to sow.

Ars Poetica: Histories

Ars Poetica: Histories Revised

A snapshot of past lives with words of poetry
shared styles of writers and poets living and gone
Yet they live on somehow with words that paint pictures
creation of long past worlds,
scenes of town and countryside.

How did the buildings look? What did the people wear?
How they fought, how they loved, and what did they fight for?
Is it just a dream, others past lives and epochs?
Do I see those who suffered?
The victims and predation?

Were writers in the past free to express the truth
or were they required to wear a social mask,
emotions deadened to preserve place and honor,
feelings barely recognized
and quickly turned away from?

Were chroniclers of the past permitted freedom,
writers and poets recording reality
as they lived it, without judgement or prejudice?
What did rulers require of them,
in service only to tribe?

To only present depictions of the good life,
beauty, love, valor of victorious armies?
Was veracity and truth an ideal of value?
Is it true the old adage,
That victors write history?

I fear absence of truth, it makes me feel brainwashed.
Should this trait be retained, nourished, cultivated?
Or is this obsession macabre and sinister?
Does the past even matter-
sleeping dogs be left alone?

The past is gone with no one able to change it.
We can learn, mistakes prevented in our own lives.
We can view the stories as cairns that mark the way.
Don’t fall off the steppingstone!
It is there for a reason!

A Winter Rove

Shimmered moon, crystalled ring,

Delight of winter’s snowflake bling. 

Gently fall to caress the face, 

Finer lace, slowing pace. 

Bridled bird, murmured owl, 

Solitude of sound, softly now, 

Response, rapacious, coyote call, 

Wind leads wind, icy, raw. 

Solaced sky fills the eye, 

Natural balm of light on high. 

Gentle Gaia gilds altered hue, 

Darkened view, dim made new. 

Daylight dawns, alpen glow, 

Sol paints with purest, pastel flow. 

Touched and tattooed, colors me red. 

Morn, night, the ageless wed.